GCSE & A-Level Revision Resources

• Lancastrian champion against the Yorkist Richard III

• Excluding an invasion in France in the October of 1492, which was only a show of power, and a few skirmishes of claims to the thrown, the reign of Henry VII is hallmarked by peace

• He was concerned with stabilised the county through strong administration, good accounting and saving. Eventually streamlined the organisation of financial administration and by his death 80% of royal income (100,000 pounds) went straight to the chamber. Consequently, the treasurer of the chamber was in fact the receiver-general of all crown lands, and most other revenues.

• Henry began his reign in 1485 with a financially, diplomatically and internally weak country. Yet, by his death in 1509, the crown was vastly stronger than it had been in 1485, but it was no nearer to being absolute.

• In 1471, at the age of 14, he left Britain to live in exile in Brittany. In 1485, with the backing of the King of France, and still only 27, he began his bid for the English throne. He met Richard III and his forces just outside the small market town of Market Bosworth, where, for the last time in English history, an English king (Richard III) was defeated and killed in battle. Henry claimed the crown for himself.

• Henry was always concerned with security (threats to the crown) and this can be seen within a great number of his policies whether from Perkin Warbeck, Lambert Simnel or the De La Poles in exile.

• Henry was a king for the people, he created / changed a great deal of the workings of the crown and also that of the country. Perhaps he was the greatest king England has ever had. His awareness too problems within the country prevented uprising and any revolts (excluding the angry Cornishmen who were displeased over high taxes)

• Dawson Ian, The Tudor Century

• Grant A., Henry VII

• Guy John, Tudor England

• Lander J. R., Government and Community

• Loades David, Chronicles of the Tudor Kings

• Lockyer Roger, Henry VII

• Lotherington John, The Tudor Years

1.The Northern Rising - Sources work

Document A

The Council has decided, at the instance of the Duke of Norfolk and his friends, that the Queen of Scotland shall be set at liberty, on the condition that she marries an Englishman; the signatures of all the principal people in this country have been obtained to this effect.

The matter of her marriage is so far advanced that the French ambassador has been reconciled to it. I understand that, in a day or two, the duke himself or some other leading personage will come and request me to write to your Majesty to learn your wishes on the subject. The business is so far forward that it will be difficult now to prevent it, but I think it will be better that it should be done with your Majesty's consent, which cannot fail to be of great advantage, as it will bind them more closely than ever to your Majesty's service.

(Guera de Spes, Spanish ambassador in England to Philip II, 22nd August 1569)

Document B

Upon the first rumour of a marriage between the Duke of Norfolk and the Scottish Queen, the Papists much rejoiced, and imagined that religion would be altered, and took encouragement to speak against the Protestants, whereby much fear rose among the people.

Then news came that the Duke had left the Court, and gone into Norfolk, and that there upon the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland had caused their servants to take up their horses and be in readiness; where upon the people imagined that the earls would assist the Duke; but whether they caused their men to be in readiness, or had any such meaning, is unknown. I have heard since that the Earl of Northumberland has scarcely sufficient horses for his own family. There was another rumour that the confederates intended to deliver the Scottish Queen from the Earl of Shrewsbury.

When the Duke returned to Court, it was rumoured that the plotters, moved that religion should be the cause of their stir, upon which point it was said they disagreed and so departed; but neither the place where the assembly was held, nor the persons that attended are known, save that Robert Bowes and Francis Norton were the persons that disagreed; yet I have heard by one of their friends that there never was any such matter.

The persons named as great doers in these matters be all evil of religion.

(Notes sent by Sir Thomas Gargrave, in the north, to Sir William Cecil, 2nd November 1569)

1. The writers of Documents A and B are each sending back a report of a phase of the events to their governments. What similarities and what differences emerge in the ways they gather and interpret their information?

2. Did the arrival of Mary, Queen of Scots push the Catholics into a state of crisis, 1565-69?

Answer

Elizabeth was under pressure to marry for a number of reasons:

• It was felt that all women should marry.
• She needed to provide the Kingdom with an heir. She was the last surviving child of Henry VIII.
• A man would provide her with the necessary capabilities for government.
• The succession issue was perhaps the most pressing.
• In 1561 Lady Catherine Grey, in line for the throne, married without the consent of Elizabeth. Elizabeth was doubly outraged when she discovered that Catherine was pregnant.
• In 1562 Elizabeth found herself under even more pressure to marry after she recovered from a bout of illness. She contracted smallpox, and at that point the doctors who were attending her told Cecil that there was nothing that they could do to save her.
• By 1563 parliament was begging her to marry. The Lords begged her, "That it please your Majesty to dispose yourself to marry, where you will, with whom you will, and as shortly as you will."

Throughout her reign, and indeed before it, there were a number of men who presented themselves to Elizabeth as potential husbands.

Thomas Seymour

Philip II he felt that it was fitting that he should fill the position, after all he had been consort to a Queen already. He made a number of advances towards Elizabeth via his ambassador, de Spes.

Earl Arundel He tried to bribe her Ladies. He didn't really stand much of a chance.

Sir William Pickering Around 1559 he courted her. Elizabeth did like him.

Eric XIV of Sweden

Earl of Arran

Archduke of Austria

Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester perhaps the most famous of all her suitors. Historians disagree as to whether he was ever a real contender. There is no denying that Elizabeth was very fond of him. However, he was married, and when his wife died in mysterious circumstances Elizabeth was for some time implicated in a murder plot. (Historians now suspect that she died from breast cancer.) He had the backing of Philip II and the Pope to try to marry Elizabeth.

There were others.

Elizabeth was determined not to marry. She had been influenced by the writings of St Basil on the virtues of a single life (so that monks and nuns could devote themselves to their work and prayers).

She always thought of herself as married to her realm. She said as much on more than one occasion, 'I have no master and only one mistress'. (England)

She used her 'availability' as a political and diplomatic weapon. While she was not married she was assured the courtship of most of the leading men of Europe. At home too, she felt that if she remained single then she, rather than her son or daughter would be the central figure at court. In 1563 she told a Spanish official, "If I am to disclose to you what I should prefer if I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, rather than queen and married."

A F Pollard maintains that she did not marry because she knew that she could not have children and she did not want anyone to discover this. Christopher Haigh rubbishes this idea, citing evidence that she had a regular menstrual cycle and reports from her laundress's show that she could still have children at the age of 45.

• Some nobles in court conspire to overthrow Cecil.
• Leicester challenges Cecil's policies and is reprimanded by the Queen for doing so.
• Summer 1569 gold bullion is seized from Spanish ships.
• Norfolk plans to marry Mary, Queen of Scots.
• 6^th September Leicester confessed the marriage plans.
• 1^st Oct. he sends a message to the Earl of Westmoreland, his brother-in-law, not to rise.
• Norfolk was arrested and put in the Tower.
• 13^th Oct. Sussex, in charge of the Council of the North, reported that all was quiet.
• Early November, the Neville tenantry made their way to Westmoreland's land to prepare. The gentry (who would remain loyal to the crown) went to George Bowe's castle at Barnard Castle.
• 9^th November, the churchbells rang backwards at the church in Topcliffe.
• 13^th November, Sussex responds by sending out troops.
• The tennantry raised in rebellion threatened to 'spoil' any land of gentry who would not join them in rebellion.
• 14^th November, the earls took Durham cathedral and took mass there.
• 15^th November, they marched south towards Bramham Moor.
• They raised the North Rising on their way south.
• 24^th November, the rebels turned and headed back towards Knaresborough.
• 30^th November, the rebels reached Brancepeth.
• 14^th December, Bowes reported to Cecil that Barnard Castle was near starvation. Some men had jumped over the walls to join the rebels.
• Bowes was allowed to surrender. He marched to York with 400 men.
• 19^th December there was a skirmish between the rebels and the crown's supporters just outside Newcastle.
• The rebels and their leaders flee. Some go abroad. Northumberland fled to Scotland but was handed over.
• August 1572 Northumberland was beheaded in York.

[/ulist]

Political	Norfolk planned to marry Mary Queen of Scots and to put her on the throne.
The established Northern Families had their power eroded.
The "council of the North" currently under the control of the queen's cousin replaced them.
Northumberland was restored under Mary Tudor, but under Elizabeth he found his position deprived.
Economic	Successive assaults on the nobility of the North, saw their lands confiscated - especially Northumberland's.
The crown would not accept Northumberlands right to claim profits from copper mines discovered on his estates.
The tenantry rose against the gentry.
Religious	Mary would re-Catholicise England if she were Queen. They resented the crown's appointment of the Bishop of Durham.
Leaders like Markenfield and Matan were influenced by Catholic ideas in the continent.
Northumberland confessed to rising on religious grounds, not marriage.
Richard Norton led rebels into Durham under the "5 wounds of Christ".
Other	The Earl of Westmoreland's wife pressured her husband as well as Northumberland to rise.
The earls felt they must act or flee once Norfolk had been arrested.
The countess of Northumberland was powerful - she led men out in rebellion.
They could rise in the north as it was not an integral part of the Tudor infrastructure.

Mary, Queen of Scots was heir to the throne of England as the granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, who married James IV of Scotland.

She became Queen of Scotland in 1542, at the age of 6 days old. Her mother ruled Scotland in her name until Mary returned to her homeland in 1561. She was charming, educated and beautiful, but despite this she found many enemies. Many of the Scottish Lords saw her as a French impostor. She married a descendant of the Tudor family, Lord Darnley, therefore strengthening her claim to the English throne.

In March 1556 her husband tried to overthrow her in the Rizzio Plot. She won him over and the two escaped to Dunbar.

In 1557 Lord Darnley was murdered. A close ally (and probable lover) of the Queen was implicated. Acquitted, he and Mary married. But it was the beginning of the end. The Scottish Church was outraged. She soon lost the support of her Lords and then of her people.

Mary abdicated in favour of her son, and the Regent Lord Murray. She was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle. In May 1568 she escaped. She tried one last stand against Murray, but was defeated, fled to England, arriving on the Cumbrian coast in a small boat.

Elizabeth felt that it was too much of a threat to have this woman on her land. Those who opposed her could rally behind her as a figurehead. There was ambiguity about her religion. Although she was married under Protestant rights it was widely believed that she was Catholic.

She was kept as a prisoner in Bolton Castle, Yorkshire, for a few months before being transported to the midlands under the watchful eyes of Lord Shrewsbury and his wife, Bess of Hardwick.

Mary and Norfolk

The Duke of Norfolk planned to marry Mary and then claim her as Elizabeth's successor. He assured the support of a couple of significant men (Leicester and Throckmorton). However, Leicester told all to Cecil when interviewed, and Norfolk fled.

A rebellion did follow, but Norfolk escaped with his life.

The Ridolfi Plot

Norfolk, Ridolfi (an Italian banker), Mary, Lord Lumley, de Spes, Philip II and the pope plotted to land over 6000 men at Harwich. These men would join with English Catholics in an attempt to overthrow Elizabeth and place Mary on the throne.

This time Norfolk could not get away with it. She delayed three times in signing his death warrant, as he was the country's only Duke and a relative of hers.

Elizabeth would not execute a second relative, nor did she want to set a modern precedent for executing monarchs. Mary was not even removed from the succession.

The Throckmorton Plot

Francis Throckmorton belonged to a Catholic family. Another plot was hatched with him as the leader for the overthrow of Elizabeth, to be replaced with Mary as Queen. The plan was the brainchild of the Duke of Guise. Again, Philip II and the Pope were to finance the scheme.

Walsingham discovered the plot and Throckmorton was executed. Mary, the figurehead of a rebellion for the third time, was spared.

As a result of the rebellion the Bond of Association was created. Volunteers who promised to avenge any overthrow of Elizabeth were invited to sign the Bond. It was incredibly successful.

Walsingham found Mary to be in secret correspondence with the French ambassador. At the same time a plot by Babbington to kill Elizabeth and install Mary was discovered. Mary had replied to Babbington that she approved of the murder of Elizabeth. A letter which had been intercepted. Babbington was executed and Mary went on trial.

Mary was found guilty by the court in October 1586 but still Elizabeth could not bring herself to sign the death warrant.

By February 1587 there were very real fears of a Spanish invasion. Elizabeth signed the death warrant, but told the Secretary of State not to seal it. He did nevertheless and Mary was executed on 8 February. Elizabeth was informed only after the execution. Elizabeth was wracked with remorse at this action. She had killed a Queen anointed by God. She wrote an apology to James VI.

Date: 1559

There were 2 main Acts:

Act of Supremacy

Act of Uniformity

In the first Act Elizabeth became Supreme Governor of the Church...

This appeased the Catholics who could only ever consider the Pope to be God's appointed on Earth, and it pleased others who could not bear to think that a human could be God's appointed on Earth - that was Christ. Never mind that God's appointed was this time a woman! Henry would have considered himself of semi-ecclesiastical rank. Elizabeth did not.

The second Act stated that:

• 1552 Book of Common Prayer should be used under pain of imprisonment.
• Everyone had to attend church on a Sunday or a Holy day or pay a 12d fine (which went to poor relief).
• Fines were imposed for slandering the Prayer Book or trying to prevent its proper use.
• The wording of communion allowed for differing interpretations (including transubstantiation).
• Church vestaments from the 2^nd year of the reign of Edward were to be reintroduced.
• All members of the clergy were to swear an Oath of Supremacy.
• It was a mixture between the religious legislation of Edward's reign and that of the reign of Henry VIII.

She also managed to pass through a number of other Acts...

• She repealed the Marian Heresy laws.
• She set up a commission to ensure order in the churches, and to stamp out ill practice.
• Clergy had to preach at least four times per year.
• Each parish had to have a complete copy of the Bible in English.
• An article on Eucharist denied the presence of Christ during the Eucharist.
• The Act of First Fruits and Tenths was passed again. No money to go to Rome.
• Dissolution of the monasteries and chantries that Mary had restored.
• Act of Exchange meant that the Queen could claim the revenue from vacant sees.

Propaganda

Censorship

Physical Force

Imprisoning 3 clerics (2 bishops and the Abbot of Westminster) while the vote was being held in the Upper House. The Bill was passed by 3 votes. The doing of Cecil?

Compromise

Political Practice

But this Act was not easy to pass. There was strong opposition in the Lords, not just from the spiritual lords but also from those such as Lord Montague.

The Commons largely supported, but there were a few dissenting voices.

Because the clergy had to swear an oath of supremacy many left. All but 1 of the bishops refused to sign. But almost all of the lower orders signed. (4% refused - 300/8000).

Rather than a compromise, it caused division. Some of the Acts appeased neither the Marians that hung on, nor the Lutheran reforming groups. For example the injunction about the presence of Christ at the Eucharist upset both groups.

There were financial rewards to be gained from these Acts. Especially, the First Fruits and Tenths, dissolution of the monasteries and the chanteries and from taking vacant sees. The crown's acquisition of First Fruits and Tenths alone increased the crowns revenue by £40 000 p.a.

The increased revenue was good news as England was still at war with France, and an invasion from Scotland was expected at any time

Strangely enough, the part, which caused greatest controversy in the 1560s, and later lead to a breakaway group of non-conformists was the article about the vestements!

Lotherington maintains that there were no guarantees that there would be a return to Protestantism. (Was it a matter of returning?)

Pollard held that Elizabeth wanted to design a church according to her wishes.

J.E. Neale said that she wanted a return to Henrician Catholicism without the Pope, and it was the return of exiles that made it more radical, i.e. a 'Church of England'.

More recently, N Jones argued that it was the result of a struggle between the House of Lords, the Queen, council, and the Bishops. He says the settlement was a triumph for the Queen.

Regan sides with Jones quite a lot. He says that the Settlement does reflect quite closely Elizabeth's own religious views.

Regan - she wanted to create a church where as many believers as possible would be able to find salvation.

Elizabeth's coronation procession was exceedingly grand. As she processed through the streets of London she was hailed as the restorer of Protestantism by the numerous tableaux that mether on her way. She was met with images of 'Deborah', the one to restore Israel. And a child dressed as 'Truth' handed her a version of the Bible in English. Keith Randall points out that these propagandists probably had two aims in mind. On the one hand they wanted to flatter the Queen and on the other they wished to influence her policy.

There were other images present, mainly of Tudor stability.

Elizabeth was to use propaganda as a strong political tool throughout her reign.

"The monarchy of Elizabeth I was founded upon illusion. She ruled by propagandist images which captivated her courtiers and seduced her subjects - images which have misled historians for four centuries." Christopher Haigh

Elizabeth used a variety of types of propaganda:

• Portraits
• Pageants
• Plays
• Tableaux
• Speeches

She immediately began to discredit Mary's reign. Her propaganda pointed towards her predecessor's reign being a failure due to the government and the reliance upon Spanish help.

Images of Kingship

Her various images were:

The English Deborah

As explained above

The Phoenix and the Pelican

The pelican, as Susan Doran points out was an image to represent the Protestant religion.

The phoenix is linked with this. The phoenix is a mystical bird that rises from its ashes, thereby creating an analogy with the re-birth of Protestantism after Mary's reign. It is also an image of strength as well as being mystical. And finally, it made a link with her mother.

The Sieve Portrait

The sieve was a symbol of virginity dating from Roman times.

She was influenced by reading the letters of St Basil's epistles to St Gregory, which were given to her in her teenage years. They extolled the virtues of a single life.

When she was crowned she had a ring placed on her wedding finger to symbolise her marriage to the realm. She took this seriously. She proclaimed on more than one occasion that she was married to the realm, and for that reason would not take a husband.

This image was, perhaps, based on that of The Virgin Mary: chosen by God for a special purpose.

She tried to create the impression that she was not of this earth, and therefore, not prone to (what Tudors believed to be) the shortcomings of womanhood. Women of the C16th were portrayed as meek, humble, domestic and obedient, and married. Elizabeth was none of these. In 1558 John Foxe published The First Blast of the Trumpet in which he claimed that rule by a woman was 'monstrous'. However, Calvin expounded the idea that she was a special woman, whom God had sent to try and do His work with a woman's special touch.

Christopher Haigh says that she was a 'political hermaphrodite', trying to be a King as well as a Queen.

Elizabeth was born in 1533, the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn.

When she was three years old, her mother was put on trial for multiple sexual offences and high treason. She was found guilty and executed. Elizabeth was, to Henry, a constant reminder of Anne, and so she was packed off to a rather small and inconsequential manor to receive her education. She had hardly any contact with her father, and the general impression is that he wanted very little to do with her. After all, she was disinherited in 1537, and placed only the third in line to the throne in Henry's Will. It was likely that she would be a princess all her life.

Nevertheless, Elizabeth was well educated. She was taught by aristocratic governesses. There is evidence that she was a quick learner. Very early on in life she could speak and write in a number of languages including French and Latin.

Her religious education was undertaken by reformists, those in fact who had been close to Anne Boleyn. These ideas were strengthened when Elizabeth went to live with her stepmother Catherine Parr, towards whom she had grown very close. Catherine had reformist ideals, and she and her ideas made a large impact on the young princess.

The Seymour Affair

While living with Catherine Parr, Elizabeth had her taste of danger.

Catherine Parr had married Thomas Seymour, in a matter of months after Henry's death. Thomas was the younger, very jealous brother of the Protector, Edward Seymour. Thomas resented the fact that Edward had made such a position for himself on the premise that he was the King's uncle, and yet he had virtually nothing, and yet he also was the King's uncle.

Thomas flirted with Elizabeth. There is evidence that he would creep into her bedroom early in the mornings and tickle her while she was still in bed(!). He would also 'romp with her in the garden'. All these activities wentunnoticed by Catherine Parr, but not by Elizabeth's governess, who may well have encouraged Thomas.

Catherine Parr died in childbirth. Thomas vowed that he would marry Elizabeth. Elizabeth was not totally against the idea, but understanding the implications of her father's will, she knew that she had to have the consent of council, otherwise she would be disinherited.

Driven by jealous ambition, Thomas Seymour plotted to kidnap the King. He had apartments in the Royal Household, and so he thought, this should not be a difficult task. He did indeed enter the King's chamber late one night. An escapade in which the King was saved but his pet spaniel was killed.

Thomas was arrested, Elizabeth's governess testified to the 'frolics' and games that passed between Elizabeth and Thomas Seymour. Elizabeth was forced to be cross-examined by the council. She was on trial for her life.

Thomas Seymour was executed. Elizabeth was found innocent. Starkey claims that this was a 'turning point in her life' and that from this point onwards she would be aware that when a man had his eyes on her he was also seeing the throne of England.

Wyatt's Rebellion

During the reign of her sister, Mary, Elizabeth was implicated in another plot to overthrow the monarch. Thomas Wyatt raised a rebellion in Kent in protest to Mary's marriage to Prince Philip of Spain. There is talk of overthrowing the Queen. Thomas Wyatt certainly wrote to Elizabeth (there's no evidence to suggest that he received a reply).

Elizabeth was called to London, taken in through Traitor's Gate and imprisoned in the Tower of London. She spent 8 weeks in the Tower, and then a year under house arrest. Yet again, due to a lack of evidence, Elizabeth was released.

Elizabeth was well educated, well read, and she had a strong mind. Friends of her mother educated her. This ensured that she had strong Lutheran ideas.

Her father did not want anything to do with her. She was sent to live at Hatfield.

She was close to Catherine Parr.

She had a number of close escapes in her youth: the Seymour Affair and Wyatt's Rebellion (for which she spent a spell in the Tower).

Elizabeth used propaganda better than any other Tudor monarch. She portrayed herself as: the Restorer of Protestantism, The Phoenix risen from the ashes, the Virgin Queen.

Her first priority was to try to solve the religious issue.

She claimed that she could not, nor did wish to 'make a window into men's souls'.

She introduced the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity, 1559. The 1552 Prayer Book was re-introduced, church vestements from the time of Edward had to be worn. It was a mixture between the religious legislation of Henry VIII and Edward VI.

Only 1 bishop refused to take the Oath of Supremacy.

Mary Queen of Scots was a threat as she became the figurehead for a number of Catholic uprisings: Northern Rising 1569, Ridolfi plot 1571, Throckmorton Plot 1583. Mary could not bring herself to execute the Scottish Queen.

In 1569 the north rose in rebellion. The rebellion was headed by 2 noblemen: the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland. The Duke of Norfolk conspired to marry Mary, Queen of Scots.

Elizabeth did not marry. She felt that she could serve her country better this way. She used her 'availability' as a political and diplomatic weapon.

Fletcher, A., Tudor Rebellions

Guy, John, Tudor England

Haigh, Christopher, Elizabeth I

Lotherington, The Tudor Years

Randall, K., Elizabeth I and the Government of England