The Restoration of the Monarchy, 1660

The Interregnum: England without a king, 1649–1660

The eleven years between Charles I's execution (January 1649) and Charles II's return (May 1660) are known as the Interregnum — "between kingdoms." England was governed first as a Commonwealth (a republic ruled by Parliament) and then, after 1653, as a Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, who held the title "Lord Protector."

Cromwell was a dominating figure — a Puritan general of genius — but the republic he ran was deeply unstable. Problems included:

• Religious division: The Puritan regime imposed strict moral rules (closing theatres, banning Christmas celebrations) that alienated many ordinary people.
• Political conflict: Parliament and the army constantly clashed over how England should be governed.
• Financial problems: The republic was expensive and faced hostility from foreign powers.
• Lack of legitimacy: Without a monarch, there was no clear hereditary principle — no obvious answer to the question "who should rule next?"

When Cromwell died in September 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him but resigned within months — unable to manage the army or Parliament. The republic began to disintegrate.

Why the Restoration happened

By 1659–1660, England was close to anarchy. Several different factions were competing for power: the army, the Rump Parliament (the purged remnant of the Long Parliament), and various religious and political groups. The country wanted stability above all else.

The key figure was General George Monck, commander of the English army in Scotland. In January 1660, Monck marched his disciplined army south, restored the Long Parliament, and began negotiations with Charles II in exile. Monck's position was decisive: without army support, no political settlement could last.

Charles II was in exile in the Spanish Netherlands. He and his advisers drafted the Declaration of Breda (April 1660) — a carefully worded document that promised:

• Amnesty for those who had fought against the crown (with exceptions to be decided by Parliament)
• Religious toleration — a "liberty to tender consciences" (precise definition left to Parliament)
• Army pay arrears to be settled
• Property disputes to be settled by Parliament

The Declaration of Breda was not a detailed settlement — it deliberately left the hard questions to Parliament. This was politically brilliant: it allowed almost everyone to support the Restoration without committing Charles to anything specific.

The Convention Parliament and the settlement

In May 1660, the Convention Parliament — an assembly that had met without royal summons — voted to restore Charles II as king. Charles landed at Dover on 25 May 1660 and entered London on 29 May — his 30th birthday. The day is still known as Oak Apple Day or Royal Oak Day, after the oak tree in which Charles had hidden after the Battle of Worcester (1651).

The Restoration settlement involved:

• The Act of Indemnity and Oblivion (1660): Amnesty for almost everyone who had fought against the crown, with only a small number of named regicides (those who had signed Charles I's death warrant) excluded.
• Religious settlement: Ambiguous — the Declaration of Breda's promise of toleration was not immediately fulfilled. The Cavalier Parliament (elected 1661) was strongly Anglican and passed the Clarendon Code (1661–1665), a series of laws that excluded Nonconformists from public life and reimposed the Church of England.
• Financial settlement: Parliament granted Charles an annual income (the Civil List), but it was insufficient for royal expenses — a source of tension throughout the reign.
• Army: The New Model Army was paid off and disbanded — an enormous political achievement, removing the main prop of the Protectorate without disorder.

What the Restoration did and did not settle

The Restoration settled some questions definitively:

• England would have a king again — the republican experiment was over.
• The army would not rule directly.
• The basic framework of parliamentary monarchy would be maintained.

But it left others unresolved:

• The relationship between king and Parliament (especially on finances and religion)
• The position of Nonconformists (Quakers, Baptists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists)
• The question of the Catholic succession — Charles had no legitimate children, making his Catholic brother James the heir

These unresolved questions would drive the politics of the Restoration period and ultimately produce the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

Revision checklist

Before moving on, make sure you can answer:

1. What was the Interregnum? Why did the Protectorate collapse after Cromwell's death?
2. Who was General Monck? Why was his role in 1660 decisive?
3. What was the Declaration of Breda? What did it promise?
4. Why was the Declaration of Breda deliberately vague about religion and property?
5. What was the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion? Who was excluded?
6. What was the Clarendon Code? How did it affect Nonconformists?
7. Why was the financial settlement a problem for Charles II?
8. What questions did the Restoration settlement leave unresolved?

What's New snippet

Article slug: gcse-history-restoration-england-restoration-monarchy-1660

Title: The king returns — how Charles II came back and what he had to promise to get there

In 1660, England invited its king back. The republican experiment had lasted eleven years and produced Oliver Cromwell — but when Cromwell died, the republic fell apart within months. Charles II's Declaration of Breda made the right promises to the right people, General Monck marched south, and on 29 May 1660 — his 30th birthday — Charles entered London to cheering crowds. What he'd actually agreed to was a question for later.