The road to conquest: the claimants of 1066

Who was supposed to be king?

Think about this: when King Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066, he left no children and no clear written will naming his successor. Three powerful men across Europe each believed they had the strongest claim to the throne. What makes a claim to a throne legitimate? Blood? A promise? The decision of a council? In 1066, all three were in play — and all three pointed to different men.

Edward the Confessor had been King of England since 1042. He was a deeply religious man — his great project was the building of Westminster Abbey — but he was a weak political ruler, and he had failed to produce an heir. When he died, the question of succession immediately became the most dangerous political question in Europe.

Three men stepped forward:

Harold Godwinson, the Earl of Wessex, was the most powerful nobleman in England. He claimed that Edward had promised him the throne on his deathbed. The Anglo-Saxon council of nobles — the Witan — accepted this claim and crowned Harold king the day after Edward died. Harold had practical power, the support of the English nobility, and he was already there.

Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, claimed the English throne through a complicated treaty argument: he believed that a previous agreement between the kings of Norway and Denmark gave him rights over England. It was a weak legal claim, but Hardrada was one of the most feared warriors in Europe and he intended to enforce it by force.

William, Duke of Normandy, had the most carefully constructed claim. He said Edward had promised him the throne in 1051. He also said that Harold himself had sworn a sacred oath — on holy relics — to support William's claim to the throne. When Harold broke that oath by accepting the crown, William argued that Harold was a perjurer as well as a usurper.

The Battle of Stamford Bridge, 25 September 1066

Harald Hardrada invaded first. In September 1066 he sailed to Yorkshire with a fleet of around 300 ships and approximately 9,000 men, joined by Harold's own brother Tostig, who had been expelled from his earldom and was seeking revenge.

Hardrada's forces won an early skirmish at Gate Fulford (20 September), defeating the northern earls Edwin and Morcar. Confident of victory, the Norwegian army camped at Stamford Bridge on the River Derwent, waiting for hostages and supplies from York — and were caught completely unprepared.

Harold had marched his army nearly 300 miles from London in four days. The Norwegians were resting without their armour on when the English appeared. The battle was ferocious. According to legend, a giant Norwegian warrior held the bridge single-handedly against the English advance until he was killed by a spear thrust from below. Once the English crossed, the battle became a rout.

Both Hardrada and Tostig were killed. The Norwegian threat was over.

William lands — and Harold must march south

Three days after Stamford Bridge, Harold received devastating news: William of Normandy had landed at Pevensey on 28 September with an army of around 7,000–8,000 men — cavalry, archers and infantry — transported across the Channel in a fleet of perhaps 700 ships.

Harold faced an impossible choice. His army was exhausted from the march north and the battle at Stamford Bridge. His northern earls, Edwin and Morcar, had lost heavily at Gate Fulford. But William was now ravaging the south of England — deliberately burning villages and farms to provoke Harold into fighting before he was ready.

Harold marched south at speed. He paused in London for only a few days, gathering reinforcements, but did not wait long enough to collect his full strength. His advisers urged him to wait, to give the fyrd (the levy of ordinary soldiers) more time to assemble. Harold refused. On 13 October 1066, the English army took up position near Hastings.

Why did Harold lose the initiative?

Return to the question at the start: what makes a claim legitimate? Harold had the Witan's backing and practical power. But William had the moral high ground — the papal banner, Harold's broken oath, and God apparently on his side. When Harold rushed south to face William before his army had recovered, he made the decisive mistake. The events of October 1066 would determine which of these claims, in the end, would be enforced by the sword.

The Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 is covered in depth on the Battle of Hastings historic environment page. Here, the key point is this: Harold's rush south after Stamford Bridge, fighting a second major battle within three weeks with a tired army, was perhaps the single most consequential military decision in English history.

Revision checklist

Before moving on, make sure you can answer:

1. What were the three claims to the English throne in 1066, and what did each rest on?
2. Who was Harald Hardrada and why did he believe he had a right to the throne?
3. What was the Witan, and why was its decision to crown Harold significant?
4. What was Harold's oath on the relics, and why did it matter to William's claim?
5. What happened at the Battle of Stamford Bridge? Why was Harold's victory there a problem for what followed?
6. Why did William invade when he did — and what strategy did he use once he had landed?
7. Why did Harold not wait longer before marching south to face William?
8. What role did the Pope play in the events of 1066?

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Article slug: gcse-history-norman-england-the-road-to-conquest

Title: Three claimants, one empty throne — and the year that changed England forever

When Edward the Confessor died without an heir in January 1066, three men believed the English crown was rightfully theirs. Harold Godwinson seized it first — but Harald Hardrada and William of Normandy were already sharpening their swords. Understanding who had the strongest claim, and why, is the foundation of every Norman England question on your AQA paper.