Edward I and Scotland: Wallace and the Wars of Independence

The Scottish succession crisis, 1290–1292

The sequence of events that drew Edward into Scotland began with a tragedy: in 1290, Margaret, the "Maid of Norway" — the infant who was heir to the Scottish throne — died on her way to Scotland. Scotland was left without a clear heir and on the verge of civil war, with thirteen claimants to the throne.

The Scottish guardians invited Edward I to arbitrate between the competing claims. Edward agreed — but used the opportunity to assert his position as feudal overlord of Scotland (a claim that was contested and was never unambiguously established). He required the Scottish claimants to acknowledge his overlordship before the arbitration proceeded.

The leading claimants were Robert Bruce (the future Robert I's grandfather) and John Balliol. Edward chose Balliol (1292) — largely because he calculated that Balliol, with a slightly weaker personal claim, would be more dependent on English support.

John Balliol and the humiliation of Scotland

John Balliol was crowned King of Scotland in 1292. But Edward treated him as a vassal rather than a sovereign king: he summoned Balliol to English courts, demanded Scottish knights for his French campaigns, and generally treated Scotland as a subordinate territory.

In 1295, pushed to the limit, Balliol and the Scottish guardians concluded the "Auld Alliance" with France — Scotland's strategic partnership with England's enemy. This was open defiance.

Edward's response was devastating. In 1296 he invaded Scotland, sacked Berwick with enormous brutality (killing thousands of civilians), defeated the Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar, forced Balliol's surrender, stripped him of the kingship (removing his surcoat — hence the nickname "Toom Tabard," the "Empty Coat"), and took the Stone of Destiny to Westminster. He regarded Scotland as conquered.

William Wallace and the Battle of Stirling Bridge, 1297

Scottish resistance did not end with Balliol's surrender. In 1297, two leaders emerged: William Wallace in the south, and Andrew Murray in the north. They joined forces and confronted the English army at Stirling Bridge in September 1297.

The Battle of Stirling Bridge is one of the most dramatic and important battles in Scottish history. The English cavalry and infantry attempted to cross the narrow wooden bridge over the River Forth. Wallace and Murray waited until enough of the English force had crossed to be vulnerable, then attacked. The English force on the Scottish side of the bridge was surrounded and largely destroyed — including the hated English treasurer of Scotland, Hugh de Cressingham, whose skin was reportedly flayed from his body.

Stirling Bridge showed that a disciplined Scottish spearmen force — the schiltron, a hedgehog-like formation of men with long spears — could defeat English heavy cavalry if used with tactical intelligence.

Murray died of wounds shortly after. Wallace continued as Guardian of Scotland, raiding into northern England.

Falkirk and the years of occupation, 1298–1306

Edward responded to Stirling Bridge by leading a major campaign personally. At the Battle of Falkirk (1298), he defeated Wallace with a combination of archers and cavalry: the Welsh longbowmen broke the Scottish schiltrons, and Wallace's cavalry abandoned the field. It was a decisive English victory.

Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian. He conducted guerrilla resistance until his capture in 1305.

The following years saw Scotland under English occupation — English officials, English garrisons, heavy taxation. Scottish nobles made accommodations with Edward; others resisted. The situation remained unstable.

Robert Bruce and the resumption of the war

In February 1306, Robert Bruce — grandson of the original claimant, and a man who had previously fought for both sides — murdered his rival John Comyn at a church in Dumfries. This left him with no option but rebellion. He was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in March 1306.

Edward's response was another major campaign. Bruce suffered two early defeats, was forced into hiding on the western isles (the "spider" legend of perseverance dates from this period), and the situation seemed desperate. Then Edward I died on his way north to Scotland on 7 July 1307, at Burgh by Sands, near Carlisle. He was 68.

His son, the weak and ineffectual Edward II, abandoned the Scottish campaign. Bruce stabilised his position, defeated the English at Bannockburn (1314), and Scotland's independence was preserved.

Revision checklist

Before moving on, make sure you can answer:

1. How did Edward become involved in Scotland? What was the Scottish succession crisis?
2. Why did Edward choose John Balliol as King of Scotland?
3. What was the Auld Alliance? Why did Scotland make this agreement?
4. What happened at the Battle of Dunbar (1296)?
5. What was the Stone of Destiny? Why did Edward take it?
6. Who was William Wallace? What happened at the Battle of Stirling Bridge?
7. What was a schiltron? Why was it effective?
8. Why did Edward ultimately fail to conquer Scotland?

What's New snippet

Article slug: gcse-history-medieval-england-edward-scotland-wars-independence

Title: The stone, the bridge, and the war that Edward never finished

Edward I began his Scottish involvement as an arbiter — and ended it as a would-be conqueror. He took the Stone of Destiny to Westminster, humiliated John Balliol, and faced William Wallace's schiltrons at Stirling Bridge in 1297. He won at Falkirk in 1298, but Scotland was never truly conquered. Edward died in 1307 still on his way north, and Robert Bruce secured Scottish independence seven years later.