WHAT YOU'LL LEARN
Government and Society in Imperial Germany
Imperial Germany had elections and a parliament, but it was not a democracy. This page explains how the German political system worked in practice, who held real power, and how society was divided. These divisions - between the old aristocracy, the growing middle class, and the organised working class - would shape German politics for the next 50 years.
How the German government worked
Germany became a unified nation state in 1871 under the leadership of Prussia and its Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. The constitution created in 1871 set the framework that still operated in 1890 when Wilhelm II came to power.
Before reading on: what do you think the difference is between having a parliament and having a democracy?
The German constitution created three levels of power:
The Kaiser - the Emperor. He was head of state, commander of the armed forces, and the dominant figure in foreign policy. He appointed and dismissed the Chancellor.
The Chancellor - head of government. In practice, the most powerful political figure - but only as long as the Kaiser supported him. Bismarck held this role from 1871 to 1890.
The Reichstag - the parliament, elected by all men over 25. It passed laws and controlled the budget. However, it could not appoint the government - a Chancellor stayed in office because the Kaiser wanted him there, not because he commanded a parliamentary majority.
Who actually held power?
On paper, Germany had democratic elections. In practice, real power was concentrated in overlapping groups:
The Kaiser sat at the apex, but Wilhelm II's personal interventions were often erratic and unhelpful.
The military leadership - especially the Prussian army's general staff - had enormous influence. Military officers held high social status and often had direct access to the Kaiser.
The Junker aristocracy dominated the officer corps, the civil service, and the courts. They were deeply conservative and resistant to democratic reform.
Big business and heavy industry had growing influence as Germany industrialised - particularly the steel and armaments manufacturers who profited from military contracts.
The SPD - the Social Democratic Party - had mass support among the working class but was excluded from government. Socialism was treated almost as a form of treason by the Kaiser.
Society in Imperial Germany
The old order - the Junker aristocracy - remained dominant in the institutions that mattered: the military, the judiciary, the top civil service posts.
The Mittelstand - the lower middle class of shopkeepers, craftsmen, and small farmers - were economically squeezed by industrialisation. In the 1920s and 1930s, they would become a key constituency for the Nazi Party.
The industrial working class was the fastest-growing social group. Workers organised through trade unions and the SPD. Living conditions were often harsh, wages were low, and housing in industrial areas was overcrowded.
Women had no vote and limited access to higher education or professional careers. The conservative ideal was summed up in the phrase 'three Ks': Kinder, Küche, Kirche (children, kitchen, church).
Why this matters
The political and social structure of Imperial Germany mattered directly for what came after:
- The Weimar Republic (1919–1933) would inherit the same army, the same civil service, and the same judiciary - staffed by men who had served under the Kaiser and resented the democratic experiment.
- The stab in the back myth was rooted in the contempt that the military elite felt for the civilian politicians they blamed for Germany's defeat.
- The Junker class's hostility to democracy and their later willingness to work with Hitler shaped by decades of resentment.
Common exam trap
Students sometimes describe Germany as 'undemocratic' and leave it there. Be more precise. Germany had elections, parties, and a parliament. What it lacked was a government accountable to that parliament. The Chancellor served at the Kaiser's pleasure, not the Reichstag's. That distinction matters for explaining how Weimar democracy later collapsed - it had no deep roots.
Key terms
Reichstag - the German parliament. Elected by all men over 25, but government was not appointed by parliamentary majority.
Junkers - Prussian landowning aristocracy. Dominated military, civil service, and judiciary.
SPD (Social Democratic Party) - the main socialist party; the largest party in the Reichstag by 1912 but excluded from government.
Mittelstand - lower middle class of artisans, shopkeepers, and small farmers. Later a key Nazi constituency.
'Three Ks' - Kinder, Küche, Kirche (children, kitchen, church) - the conservative ideal of women's role in German society.
Summary
| Type of government | Constitutional monarchy - elections and parliament, but Kaiser held real power |
| Who held power | Kaiser, military leadership, Junker aristocracy, heavy industry |
| Who was excluded | SPD/working class (from government); women (from vote) |
| Key tension | Old aristocratic order vs growing, organised working class |
| Long-term significance | These institutions and social groups would shape - and undermine - Weimar democracy after 1919 |
Consider: the men who would later betray the Weimar Republic - conservative judges, military officers, civil servants - were trained and formed under this system. How does that help explain their later behaviour?